The Khazar Hypothesis

Overview

The Khazar hypothesis proposes that Ashkenazi Jews—who constitute approximately 80% of world Jewry today1—are primarily descended not from the ancient Israelites of the Levant, but from the Khazars: a Turkic people who established a powerful empire in the Caucasus region and mass-converted to Judaism around the 8th century CE.

This theory was most famously articulated by Arthur Koestler in his 1976 book The Thirteenth Tribe.2

Historical Background

The Khazar Empire

The Khazars controlled a vast territory in what is now southern Russia, Ukraine, and the Caucasus from approximately 650-1048 CE. Historical documentation of the Khazars comes from multiple sources:3

• Geographic extent: From the Caspian Sea to the Dnieper River
• Capital: Atil (Itil), located at the mouth of the Volga River
• Economy: Trade-based, controlling routes between Europe and Asia
• Religion: Originally pagan/shamanistic

Primary historical sources include:

• The "Khazar Correspondence" (letters between Khazar King Joseph and Spanish Jewish diplomat Hasdai ibn Shaprut, c. 960 CE)4
• Arab chroniclers including al-Masudi, Ibn Fadlan, and al-Istakhri5
• Byzantine sources including Constantine VII's De Administrando Imperio6

The Conversion

According to historical sources, the Khazar ruling class converted to Judaism sometime in the 8th century. Multiple scholars have analyzed the reasons:7

Geopolitical Independence

"At the beginning of the eighth century, the world was polarized between the two super Powers representing Christianity and Islam... The Khazar Empire represented a third force... But it could only maintain its independence by accepting neither Christianity nor Islam, for either choice would have automatically subordinated it to the authority of the Roman Emperor or the Caliph of Baghdad."

— Arthur Koestler, The Thirteenth Tribe (1976), p. 582

Strategic Logic

Converting to Judaism allowed the Khazars to:

Collapse and Migration

The Khazar Empire collapsed under pressure from:

• Kievan Rus' attacks in the 10th-11th centuries (Prince Sviatoslav's campaign of 965 CE)8
• Mongol invasions in the 13th century

Koestler and others argue that the Khazar Jewish population subsequently migrated westward into Eastern Europe, becoming the ancestors of Ashkenazi Jewry.

Evidence Cited by Proponents

Cultural Similarities

Koestler noted parallel administrative roles held by Jews in Hungary and Poland:

"Both the Hungarian and Polish sources referred to Jews employed as mint masters, administrators of the royal revenue, controllers of the salt monopoly, tax collectors and money lenders... This parallel suggests a common origin of those two immigrant communities."

— Koestler, The Thirteenth Tribe, p. 1562

Linguistic Arguments

Some proponents argue that Yiddish contains Slavic and Turkic elements that suggest Eastern European/Khazar origins rather than Germanic migration from the Rhineland. Linguist Paul Wexler has been the most prominent academic advocate of this view.9

Geographic Distribution

The concentration of Ashkenazi Jews in Eastern Europe (Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania) rather than Western Europe is cited as consistent with westward Khazar migration.

Critiques and Counterevidence

The Khazar hypothesis has been extensively criticized, particularly since genetic studies became possible:

Genetic Evidence

Multiple genome-wide studies have examined Ashkenazi Jewish ancestry:

Behar et al. (2010) - Published in Nature10

• Analyzed genome-wide data from multiple Jewish populations
• Found that "most Jewish populations share a common Middle Eastern ancestry"
• Concluded Jews cluster genetically with Druze, Cypriots, and other Levantine populations

Behar et al. (2013) - Direct response to Khazar hypothesis11

• Title: "No Evidence from Genome-Wide Data of a Khazar Origin for the Ashkenazi Jews"
• Used multiple analytical methods to test Khazar hypothesis
• Found no genetic signature of Central Asian/Khazar ancestry
• Confirmed Middle Eastern paternal and mixed maternal origins

Atalay et al. (2016) - Y-chromosome study12

• Analyzed paternal lineages specifically
• Found that ~50-80% of Ashkenazi Y-chromosomes trace to Middle East
• Consistent with founder effect from small Middle Eastern population

Counter-Study: Elhaik (2013)

Geneticist Eran Elhaik published a study arguing for Khazar origins:13

• Used different reference populations (Armenians, Georgians as proxies for Khazars)
• Concluded "Ashkenazi Jews derive their ancestry from a mixture of European and Khazar-Caucasian populations"

This study has been criticized by other geneticists for methodological issues, including the choice of proxy populations (no modern population clearly descends from Khazars).11

Historical Critique

• Pre-existing Jewish communities: Documentation of Jewish communities in the Rhineland predates the Khazar conversion, as recorded in medieval chronicles and responsa literature14
• Limited conversion evidence: While the Khazar elite converted, the extent of mass conversion among common people is disputed
• Post-collapse records: Lack of clear historical records tracing Khazar Jews into Poland/Germany

Linguistic Critique

Mainstream linguistics traces Yiddish primarily to Middle High German, with Hebrew and some Slavic loanwords—not consistent with Turkic Khazar origins. This is the consensus position as articulated in the YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe.15

Political Implications

The Khazar hypothesis carries significant political weight:

Why It Matters to Proponents

If Ashkenazi Jews are not descendants of ancient Israelites, then:

• Biblical claims to the land of Israel become questionable
• The narrative of "return" to ancestral homeland loses foundation
• Zionism's historical justification is undermined

Shlomo Sand's The Invention of the Jewish People (2009) made these arguments from an Israeli academic perspective.16

Why Critics Find It Problematic

Current Status

The Khazar hypothesis remains popular in some circles but is considered fringe by mainstream historians and geneticists. It appears in:

• Islamic eschatological frameworks (where it supports narratives about Israel's illegitimacy)
• Anti-Zionist political discourse
• Conspiracy theory ecosystems

Notably, some Jewish scholars (like Koestler himself, and later Shlomo Sand) have engaged with the hypothesis, viewing it through different lenses.

Academic Consensus

The current scientific consensus, as summarized in major review articles:19

• Ashkenazi Jews have mixed ancestry: primarily Middle Eastern paternal lineages, with significant European (mainly Southern European) maternal contribution
• There is no significant genetic evidence for Khazar ancestry
• Jewish populations worldwide show genetic clustering consistent with shared Middle Eastern origins

Further Reading

• Secret Societies & Historical Conspiracy
• Critiques: Antisemitism Accusations
• Key Figures: Arthur Koestler

This article presents various perspectives for educational purposes. The Khazar hypothesis is contested by mainstream scholarship.